Research Topic: Listeria Monocytogenes, Haemophilus Influenzae, and Mycobacterium Ulcerans

Research Topic: Listeria monocytogenes, Haemophilus influenzae, and Mycobacterium ulcerans Part 1: Listeria monocytogenes Listeria monocytogenes is a bacterium that is originated in food and can cause the serious illness of Listeriosis. Listeriosis is a serious disease for humans; the overt form of the disease has a mortality rate greater than 25 percent1. This is a Gram-positive bacterium, and is mobile by means of flagella. Listeria monocytogenes can be found in nature in soil, water and animal feces, meaning it can be also be tracked to animals.In addition to humans, at least 42 species of wild and domestic mammals and 17 types of birds can harbor listeria monocytogenes as well as crustaceans, fish, oysters, ticks, and flies. It is also reportedly carried in the intestinal tract of 5-10% of the human population without any apparent symptoms of disease1. Listeria monocytogenes is able to resist the deleterious effects of freezing, drying, and heat remarkably well for a bacterium th at does not form spores2. A human can consume this bacterium by eating a raw vegetable that grew in infected soil, or by eating improperly processed deli meats and unpasteurized milk products3.Healthy people rarely become ill from listeria monocytogenes infection. Possible complications due to the bacteria are blood infections and inflammation of the membranes and fluid surrounding the brain (meningitis). Other side effects that may develop are typical cold or flu-like symptoms. The real risk of infection is in the elderly, new born children, and pregnant women. During pregnancy, a listeria monocytogenes infection is likely to cause only mild signs and symptoms in the mother. The consequences for the baby, however, may be devastating.The baby may die unexpectedly before birth or experience a life-threatening infection within the first few days after birth3. The dangerous factor about the listeria monocytogenes is that the bacterium is able to grow in fresh food. The organisms can gr ow at 4o C which means that organism replication continues in refrigerated foods4. Therefore it is impossible for someone to know if he/she is purchasing food that 100% does not contain this bacterium. The current method the FDA uses to analyze food for possible contamination is complex and time consuming. The method requires 24 and 48 hours of enrichment, followed by a variety of other tests.Total time to identification is from 5 to 7 days, but the announcement of specific non-radiolabeled DNA probes should soon allow a simpler and faster confirmation of suspect isolates. With new DNA technology may even permit 2-3 day positive analysis in the future. Currently, FDA is collaborating in adapting its methodology to quantitate very low numbers of the organisms in foods2. This should drastically help prevent diseases that are caused through food consumption. Cases of Listeriosis in humans were not reported till about 1960, as the infection was only previous seen in animals.In 1981, the re was an outbreak that involved over 100 people in Canada. Thirty-four of the infections occurred in pregnant women, among whom there were 9 stillbirths, 23 infants born infected, and only two live healthy births. Among 77 non-pregnant adults who developed overt disease, there was nearly 30% mortality. The source of the outbreak was coleslaw produced by a local manufacturer1. Even with increasing awareness of the bacteria and ways to prevent it from getting into food through processes developed by the FDA, there have still been recent outbreaks.As of October 26, 2012, there have been twenty people reportedly hospitalized due to the listeria monocytogenes bacterium in 13 different states and the District of Columbia. Nine of the illnesses were related to a pregnancy; three of these illnesses were diagnosed in newborns. The other 13 ill persons range in age from 30 years to 87 years, with a median age of 77 years. Four deaths have been reported, one each from Minnesota, New York, Neb raska, and California4. An investigation was conducted by officials in local, state, and federal public health agencies to see what may have caused this outbreak.They came to the conclusion that an imported brand of Frescolina ricotta salata cheese distributed by Forever Cheese, Inc. is the likely source of this outbreak of Listeriosis. In interviews, ill persons answered questions about foods consumed and other exposures in the month before becoming ill. Twelve of fourteen sick people interviewed reported consuming a soft cheese4. The investigation focused on identifying intact cheeses shipped to multiple retail locations where ill persons purchased cut and repackaged cheese. There is no report of a direct link to one specific retailer or location of where the cheese was produced.No one cheese was reported by the majority of ill persons, suggesting that cross-contamination of other cheeses through cutting boards and utensils may have played a role. The investigation focused on iden tifying intact cheeses shipped to multiple retail locations where ill persons purchased cut and repackaged cheese4. There is still a chance of more ill people being reported because it can take up to 2 months after eating contaminated food for Listeriosis to develop. Works Cited: 1. Todar K. 2012. Listeria monocytogenes. Todar’s Online Textbook of Bacteriology. 1-3 2. [FDA] Federal Drug Administration. 012. Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook: Listeria monocytogenes. Bad Bug Book. 3. http://www. mayoclinic. com/print/listeria-infection/DS00963/DSECTION=all&METHOD=print 4. [CDC} Center of Disease Control. 2012. Multistate Outbreak of Listeriosis Linked to Imported Frescolina Marte Brand Ricotta Salata Cheese. Listeria (Listeriosis). Part 2: Haemophilus influenzae Just by looking at the name of the bacterium Haemophilus influenza, one would guess this is the microbe that causes influenza. It was first found during the influenza pandemic of 1890.It wa s mistakenly thought to be the cause of the disease influenza, and it was named accordingly. Probably, H. influenzae was an important secondary invader to the influenza virus in the 1890 pandemic, as it has been during many subsequent influenza epidemics1. There are similarities between human influenza virus and H. influenzae, as was observed in infant rats. H. influenzae is a small Gram negative bacillus which can be grown on chocolate agar (heated blood)2. H. influenzae is highly adapted to its human host. It is present in approximately 75 percent of healthy children and adults.It is rarely encountered in the oral cavity, and it has not been detected in any other animal species1. A minority of healthy individuals have H. influenzae type b encapsulated in their upper respiratory tract. Haemophilus influenzae type b, or Hib, is a bacterium estimated to be responsible for some three million serious illnesses and an estimated 386,000 deaths per year, mainly through meningitis and pneu monia3. Most victims are children under the age of five. Sickness due to these bacteria is most common in underdeveloped or third-world countries.This is where the vast majority of Hib deaths occur. Hib can cause infections such as pneumonia, sinusitis, tracheobronchitis, and meningitis. Pneumonia accounts for a larger number of deaths than meningitis. However, Hib meningitis is more of a serious problem in first world countries. It leaves 15 to 35% of survivors with permanent disabilities such as mental retardation or deafness3. If a H. influenzae infection goes untreated, it will almost certainly kill the individual. The body’s immune system is incapable of fighting off the effects of the bacteria.The good news is virtually all patients treated early in the course of H. influenzae meningitis are cured. The mortality rate of other Hib infections is less than 10 percent, but nearly 30 percent of the children who recover have residual neurologic effects1. Ampicillin is typical ly the drug used to fight Hib, but there have been strands of Hib found to be immune to it, so other drugs developed and used successfully in treatment. Before 1985, Hib was the most common cause of bacterial meningitis in children under 5 years of age (approximately 12,000 cases per year, most in children younger than 18 months).Approximately 5% of affected children died, and different neurological problems developed in 15% to 30% of the surviving children. An additional estimated 7,500 cases of other invasive Hib infections also occurred annually in young children. The cumulative risk for a Hib invasive disease before the age of 5 was one in 200 children. The first Hib vaccines were licensed for use in the United States in 1985. These vaccines contained purified polyribosylribitol phosphate (PRP). PRP vaccines were ineffective in children less than 18 months of age because of the T-cell-independent nature of the immune response to PRP polysaccharide1.Research proved that this vacc ine was effective in the body being immune to Hib. In 1989, the first Hib conjugate vaccines were licensed for use among children 15 months of age or older. In 1990, two new vaccines were approved for use among infants1. The incidence of Hib invasive disease among children aged 4 years or younger has declined by 98% since the introduction of Hib conjugate vaccines. However there are still hundreds of thousands of children die each year from a disease related to Hib. There are two major obstacles when trying to prevent Hib, the shortage of both information and money.The information shortage is largely due to the difficulty of diagnosing Hib disease; it claims most of its victims without ever being recognized. In addition, Hib vaccine is more expensive to produce and thus more highly priced than classic childhood vaccines. It costs roughly seven times the total cost of vaccines against measles, polio, tuberculosis, diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis4. The Hib vaccine should be distrib uted to all children during their first few years of life just like other types of vaccines. More than 90% of infants obtain long term immunity with 2-3 doses of the vaccine1.With a strong statistic like that most parents would not hesitate to have the vaccine given to their children. The issue is not all doctors are recommending the vaccine and they do not have it available to them in order to give to their patients. A few common misconceptions about the particular vaccine for Hib are that it can prevent ear infections and meningitis. It is not clear if the particular vaccine can reduce the likelihood of ear infections, but there is no evidence to say it prevents it. As for meningitis, there are different types of bacteria that can cause it and the vaccine only protects against the H. nfluenzae bacteria itself. Children must receive other vaccines to be fully immune to meningitis. Works Cited: 1. Todar K. 2012. Haemophilus influenzae and Hib Meningitis. Todar’s Online Textbo ok of Bacteriology. 1-4 2. Ghaffar A, 2010, Bacteriology Chapter 18: Bordetella, Haemophilus and Legionella. Microbiology and Immunology On-Line. 3. http://www. who. int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs294/en/index. html 4. Musher DM. Haemophilus Species. In: Baron S, editor. Medical Microbiology. 4th edition. Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; 1996. Chapter 30. Part 3: Mycobacterium ulceransWe commonly think of an ulcer as a small, yet painful sore that develops on lips, inside mouths, or other places of the body. These are common, and are generally not serious in nature as they heal on their own. However there are other types of ulcers that are more serious that are caused by bacterial infections. The Mycobacterium ulcerans, is a bacterium that causes large ulcers to form on the skin on different parts of the body. The infection due to the type of bacterium is called the Buruli ulcer. This may range from a painless nodule to large, ulcerative lesions that he al spontaneously but slowly.Along with scarring and deterioration of the skin, a severe enough case of it can lead to permanent bone damage. After tuberculosis and leprosy, the Buruli ulcer is the most common mycobacterial infection of humans1. The mode of transmission is not known, but recent evidence suggests that aquatic insects and fish, and even different types of animals such as koalas, possums, horses, cats and dogs may be able to carry the bacteria2. Open wounds on the skin seem to be the most logical way the organism enters the body. There is little proven evidence of bacteria being able to be spread through human to human touch2.About 70% of those affected are children under the age of 15 years2. Mortality due to the disease is low; however the likelihood of permanent scarring and amputation is high. The disease is mostly found in only is Western Africa and Australia. Prevalence rates have been estimated at 16% in some communities in the Ivory Coast and at 22% in a communi ty in Ghana2. A few cases have been reported in non-endemic areas in North America and Europe, most likely as a result of international travel. Lack of familiarity with the Buruli ulcer has frequently resulted in significant delays in the diagnosis and treatment of these cases.The current economic and social burden imposed by the Buruli ulcer is enormous. Skilled surgery, expert post-operative nursing care, and restorative physiotherapy are often required to achieve good outcomes3. In Ghana, the average cost of treatment per patient is estimated to be $ 7802. This may not seem like a lot to us for the severity of disease, but in countries like Ghana not many people can afford this, or the cost or accessibility to the proper drugs is beyond the ability of the doctors in their health care system.There are many graphic pictures that can easily be found on Google that show people who do not have the ability to get their infection treated. These are the types of people with the most seve re side effects. Untreated Buruli ulcer will eventually subside with the gradual development of host immunity in most cases. However, by this time, tissue damage may be very extensive and healing by scar can lead to permanent functional and cosmetic deformity3. Successful treatment will shorten the course of the disease and minimize deformity.In recent years, research has been conducted to see where the microbe may have originated, and what it genetically contains. Unlike Hib, which was discussed in part 2, there is currently no vaccine on the market to prevent people from getting the Buruli ulcer. Scientists have been working on three different vaccine candidates: mycolactone-directed vaccines, attenuated live vaccines, and subunit protein vaccines4. An M. ulcerans bacterium causes harm through its toxin mycolactone; therefore a vaccine directed against this toxin may provide protection. Several constructs are under development and confer some protection in mice4.These recent findi ngs have been a big step forward in the understanding of the mechanisms by which mycolactone mediates its biological effects in the skin. However, it is not at the stage to be tested on people yet. There have also been developments of vaccines in Switzerland of a different kind. This kind of vaccine uses ‘typical' parts of the mycobacterium as target for the immune systems, instead of complete mycobacteria4. There is a lot less chance of negative side effects, but it is not always as effective. In test results, it has shown to be effective in preventing the growth of the M. lcerans in the short term, but the effects wear off and the vaccine would have to be re-administered. Even with all the progress toward a new vaccine, the problem still exists of how it would be properly administered. The areas that are most affected, as stated earlier, would not be able to afford these vaccinations for their children. The only area with the epidemic of the Buruli ulcers that could extremel y benefit from the possible development of vaccinations would be southern Australia. For this reason I believe other projects will be prioritized higher because of more economic benefit to the developers and sellers.Works Cited: 1. van der Werf TS, van der Graaf WT, Tappero JW, Asiedu K. 1999 Sep 18. Mycobacterium ulcerans infection. PubMed. gov. 2. Poraels F, Johnson P, Meyers WM. 2001. Buruli Ulcer: Diagnosis of Mycobacterium ulcerans disease. WHO. 3-6 3. Johnson PDR, Stinear T, Small PLC, Pluschke G, Merritt RW, et al. (2005) Buruli Ulcer (M. ulcerans Infection): New Insights, New Hope for Disease Control. PLoS Med 2(4): e108. doi:10. 1371/journal. pmed. 0020108 4. http://www. news-medical. net/news/20120419/BuruliVac-project-getting-closer-to-a-vaccine. aspx

Neolithic Vs Paleolithic

Life changed dramatically between the Paleolithic and Neolithic times. Paleolithic is the early phase of the Stone Age, lasting about 2. 5 million years, when primitive stone implements were used. The Paleolithic Period was also called the Old Stone Age. Neolithic is the later part of the Stone Age, when ground or polished stone weapons and implements prevailed. The Neolithic Period was also called the New Stone Age. The Neolithic Revolution was the world's first traditionally, provable revolution in agriculture.It involved the wide-scale change of many human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to agriculture as well as settlement, which supported larger population. Important events significantly changed the way of life between Paleolithic and Neolithic times. Although life changed dramatically between these two times there are still some similarities and differences amongst them. Paleolithic and Neolithic times have a lot of things in common. Both of these times were dependent on natural resources. In Paleolithic times they moved with food supply.In Neolithic times they used need water and good soil for crops. Paleolithic and Neolithic both had a government. In Paleolithic times the males ruled the families. In Neolithic times there was a Chief with council. Both of Paleolithic and Neolithic times had a religion. They had religions, which meant they believe in life after death. Socially in both time period’s men hunted and farmed and women gathered. Neolithic and Paleolithic periods had technology. For Paleolithic they used stone tools, and in Neolithic they had farming, baking and firing pottery, specialized tools, and bronze tools and weapons.Both Paleolithic and Neolithic evolved. As found in Document 2 during Paleolithic times the Ice Age forced man to move and change. Mankind was forced to depend less on plants and animals. In Neolithic they farmed allowing them to settle in one place, which gave them time to develop settlements and new trades. Also both of these periods had accomplishments. In the Paleolithic Age they developed language, controlled fire and made and used tools. In the Neolithic Age they accomplished making the wheel, and farming.Although there are many similarities between Paleolithic and Neolithic times there are still several difference between them as well. One difference is that Paleolithic is the Old Stone Age and Neolithic the new Stone Age. Another difference that is found in Document 1, was that Paleolithic tools were used for hunting; they were heavy and basic whereas, Neolithic tools were used for clearing land and farming; they where sharper, lighter, more variety, and polished. The main difference between these â€Å"tool kits† is the purpose they were used for.Paleolithic man was a nomad, food gatherer, and a hunter. Neolithic men settled as found in Document 3. The people were agriculturist, who domesticate animals, and grew a variety of crops. The houses of Paleolithic ma n were skin tents or caves. The houses of Neolithic man were made of mud, wood and thatch. The Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages also have differences in the form of artwork. As found in the Document 4 the Paleolithic Age they had cave paintings showing the hunting of a larger animal and the danger of hunting. As found in Document 5 the Neolithic Age they domesticated plants and animals.In the Paleolithic Era, plants were used for medicines and food. Animals were used for hunting. However, in the Neolithic Era, plants were used for food in the New Stone Age, however, the difference was that plants were grown on farms. Animals were used for domestication as well as other purposes. Document 5 also displays another difference between the Paleolithic Era and Neolithic Era. Their artworks are very different from one another. In the Paleolithic Era they had paintings of cows, and they had small portable art. Their art is also represented by cave wall drawings.In the Neolithic Era they had me galiths and 3-D art. They were represented by structures and sculptures. These different artworks show change between Paleolithic and Neolithic times. The Neolithic Era was more advanced because based on their artwork it seemed they were harder to build, more complex and took more time. The diets of these two periods were also different. The Paleolithic man consisted of meat, fruits, berries and wild grain. Neolithic man had dairy products like milk, cheese, meat and grains like wheat, barley and rice.The clothing for Paleolithic man was made of animal skins and leaves, while Neolithic man made clothes of cotton wool. In the Paleolithic age there was no specialized occupation. As found in Document 3, in Neolithic age there was division of labor, and some specialization occupations so that that there was more variation of crafts like carpentry, weaving and pottery. In Document 6 it shows that the Neolithic architecture was different then Paleolithic architecture because the Neolithic architecture had settlements and villages while the Paleolithic architecture did not.Finally due to the invention of agriculture, farming and the wheel in the New Stone Age there where many revolutionary changes and progress that came upon man’s life, which was nonexistent in the Old Stone Age. In both Paleolithic and Neolithic times there were many events that helped change their way of life. If it weren’t for those events, today would not have been the same. For example the Paleolithic people invented fire. The fire helped the Paleolithic people move into colder regions, protected them animals, and helped them with their cook their food.The Neolithic people invented weaving, pottery, metalworking, and the wheel. They also discovered agriculture. Because of agriculture people can now farm instead of hunting and gathering. This permitted and allowed people to settle down and live in one place, which led to settlements. Because people settled they now lived closer to o ther, this allowed them to start using communication. This later developed into language. Also past experiences have led up to the structure of the Neolithic house. For example in Document 6, it says how discarded items, such as bits of pottery, were pilled around each house.This was to keep harsh North Sea winds from blowing through the stonewall through small gaps. This is an example of experience. Document 2 shows how the Ice Age changed the way of living, especially hunting. Because of the Ice Age it forced man to depend less on plants and more on animals. This event caused man to make adaptations to survive. All in all important events significantly changed the way of life between Paleolithic and Neolithic times. Even though these two time periods were very far apart and had a dramatic change in life these two times still have similarities and differences amongst them.There were similarities in government, religion, social, technology, and evolution. There were differences in a rchitecture, diets, artwork, tools, dwellings, clothes and lifestyle. The events in the Paleolithic Era led up to the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution was the transformation that reformed people from being hunter gathers into being farmers. Because of the Neolithic Revolution, our world is the way it is. Both Eras had different drives and commitments to strive, but at the end of the day they’re foremost objective and aim was to survive. Neolithic Vs Paleolithic Life changed dramatically between the Paleolithic and Neolithic times. Paleolithic is the early phase of the Stone Age, lasting about 2. 5 million years, when primitive stone implements were used. The Paleolithic Period was also called the Old Stone Age. Neolithic is the later part of the Stone Age, when ground or polished stone weapons and implements prevailed. The Neolithic Period was also called the New Stone Age. The Neolithic Revolution was the world's first traditionally, provable revolution in agriculture.It involved the wide-scale change of many human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to agriculture as well as settlement, which supported larger population. Important events significantly changed the way of life between Paleolithic and Neolithic times. Although life changed dramatically between these two times there are still some similarities and differences amongst them. Paleolithic and Neolithic times have a lot of things in common. Both of these times were dependent on natural resources. In Paleolithic times they moved with food supply.In Neolithic times they used need water and good soil for crops. Paleolithic and Neolithic both had a government. In Paleolithic times the males ruled the families. In Neolithic times there was a Chief with council. Both of Paleolithic and Neolithic times had a religion. They had religions, which meant they believe in life after death. Socially in both time period’s men hunted and farmed and women gathered. Neolithic and Paleolithic periods had technology. For Paleolithic they used stone tools, and in Neolithic they had farming, baking and firing pottery, specialized tools, and bronze tools and weapons.Both Paleolithic and Neolithic evolved. As found in Document 2 during Paleolithic times the Ice Age forced man to move and change. Mankind was forced to depend less on plants and animals. In Neolithic they farmed allowing them to settle in one place, which gave them time to develop settlements and new trades. Also both of these periods had accomplishments. In the Paleolithic Age they developed language, controlled fire and made and used tools. In the Neolithic Age they accomplished making the wheel, and farming.Although there are many similarities between Paleolithic and Neolithic times there are still several difference between them as well. One difference is that Paleolithic is the Old Stone Age and Neolithic the new Stone Age. Another difference that is found in Document 1, was that Paleolithic tools were used for hunting; they were heavy and basic whereas, Neolithic tools were used for clearing land and farming; they where sharper, lighter, more variety, and polished. The main difference between these â€Å"tool kits† is the purpose they were used for.Paleolithic man was a nomad, food gatherer, and a hunter. Neolithic men settled as found in Document 3. The people were agriculturist, who domesticate animals, and grew a variety of crops. The houses of Paleolithic ma n were skin tents or caves. The houses of Neolithic man were made of mud, wood and thatch. The Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages also have differences in the form of artwork. As found in the Document 4 the Paleolithic Age they had cave paintings showing the hunting of a larger animal and the danger of hunting. As found in Document 5 the Neolithic Age they domesticated plants and animals.In the Paleolithic Era, plants were used for medicines and food. Animals were used for hunting. However, in the Neolithic Era, plants were used for food in the New Stone Age, however, the difference was that plants were grown on farms. Animals were used for domestication as well as other purposes. Document 5 also displays another difference between the Paleolithic Era and Neolithic Era. Their artworks are very different from one another. In the Paleolithic Era they had paintings of cows, and they had small portable art. Their art is also represented by cave wall drawings.In the Neolithic Era they had me galiths and 3-D art. They were represented by structures and sculptures. These different artworks show change between Paleolithic and Neolithic times. The Neolithic Era was more advanced because based on their artwork it seemed they were harder to build, more complex and took more time. The diets of these two periods were also different. The Paleolithic man consisted of meat, fruits, berries and wild grain. Neolithic man had dairy products like milk, cheese, meat and grains like wheat, barley and rice.The clothing for Paleolithic man was made of animal skins and leaves, while Neolithic man made clothes of cotton wool. In the Paleolithic age there was no specialized occupation. As found in Document 3, in Neolithic age there was division of labor, and some specialization occupations so that that there was more variation of crafts like carpentry, weaving and pottery. In Document 6 it shows that the Neolithic architecture was different then Paleolithic architecture because the Neolithic architecture had settlements and villages while the Paleolithic architecture did not.Finally due to the invention of agriculture, farming and the wheel in the New Stone Age there where many revolutionary changes and progress that came upon man’s life, which was nonexistent in the Old Stone Age. In both Paleolithic and Neolithic times there were many events that helped change their way of life. If it weren’t for those events, today would not have been the same. For example the Paleolithic people invented fire. The fire helped the Paleolithic people move into colder regions, protected them animals, and helped them with their cook their food.The Neolithic people invented weaving, pottery, metalworking, and the wheel. They also discovered agriculture. Because of agriculture people can now farm instead of hunting and gathering. This permitted and allowed people to settle down and live in one place, which led to settlements. Because people settled they now lived closer to o ther, this allowed them to start using communication. This later developed into language. Also past experiences have led up to the structure of the Neolithic house. For example in Document 6, it says how discarded items, such as bits of pottery, were pilled around each house.This was to keep harsh North Sea winds from blowing through the stonewall through small gaps. This is an example of experience. Document 2 shows how the Ice Age changed the way of living, especially hunting. Because of the Ice Age it forced man to depend less on plants and more on animals. This event caused man to make adaptations to survive. All in all important events significantly changed the way of life between Paleolithic and Neolithic times. Even though these two time periods were very far apart and had a dramatic change in life these two times still have similarities and differences amongst them.There were similarities in government, religion, social, technology, and evolution. There were differences in a rchitecture, diets, artwork, tools, dwellings, clothes and lifestyle. The events in the Paleolithic Era led up to the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution was the transformation that reformed people from being hunter gathers into being farmers. Because of the Neolithic Revolution, our world is the way it is. Both Eras had different drives and commitments to strive, but at the end of the day they’re foremost objective and aim was to survive.

Nutritional Requirements of Individuals with Dementia Essay

1.1 Describe how cognitive, functional and emotional changes associated with dementia can affect eating, drinking and nutrition 1.2 Explain how poor nutrition can contribute to an individual’s experience of dementia 1.3 Outline how other health and emotional conditions may affect the nutritional needs of an individual with dementia 1.4 Explain the importance of recognising and meeting an individual’s personal and cultural preferences for food and drink 1.5 Explain why it is important to include a variety of food and drink in the diet of an individual with dementia 2.1 Describe how mealtime cultures and environments can be a barrier to meeting the nutritional needs of an individual with dementia 2.2 Describe how mealtime environments and food presentation can be designed to help an individual to eat and drink 2.3 Describe how a person-centred approach can support an individual, with dementia at different levels of ability to eat and drink Read more:  Essay on Role of Communication With Individuals Who Have Dementia DEM313 Equality, Diversity and Inclusion in Dementia Care Practice 1.1 Explain why it is important to recognise and respect an individual’s heritage 1.2 Compare the experience of dementia for an individual who has acquired it as an older person with the experience of an individual who has acquired it  as a younger person 1.3a Describe how the experience of dementia may be different for individuals – who have a learning disability 1.3b Describe how the experience of dementia may be different for individuals – who are from different ethnic backgrounds 1.3c Describe how the experience of dementia may be different for individuals – who are at the end of life 1.4 Describe how the experience of an individual’s dementia may impact on carers 2.1 Describe how current legislation, government policy and agreed ways of working support inclusive practice for dementia care and support 2.2 Describe the ways in which an individual with dementia may be subjected to discrimination and oppression 2.3 Explain the potential impact of discrimination on an individual with dementia 2.4 Analyse how diversity, equality and inclusion are addressed in dementia care and support

Capstone Project Paper: Hernando County Essay

Hernando County is located in the Tampa Bay area and is surrounded by the Gulf of Mexico to its West, Pasco County to its South, Sumter County to its East, and Citrus County to its North. Hernando County has a population of 172,778 people (Hernando County Profile, 2012). According to Justia. com Hernando County is about seventy-six percent urban setting and the rest rural non-farming. The size of Hernando County is 53,927 square miles (County Information, 2012). The three major private sector employers are Wal-Mart Distribution Center, Oak Hill Hospital, and Spring Hill and Brooksville Regional Hospitals. Oak Hill Hospital, Spring Hill Regional Hospital, and Brooksville Regional are the major health care systems in the county (Hernando County Profile, 2012). The age group range of forty- five to sixty- four years old comprises the largest percentage of residents in Hernando County (Florida Charts, 2012). Five percent of the population is black people, and ninety- three percent is white people (Florida Charts, 2012). Nine percent is Hispanic, while ninety- one percent is non-Hispanic (Florida Charts, 2012). Twelve percent of families in Hernando County and fourteen percent of families in Florida are below the poverty level (Florida Charts, 2012). Eighty- six percent of the population in Hernando County greater than age twenty- five have a high school diploma. Eighty- five percent of the population in Florida greater than age twenty- five have a high school diploma (Florida Charts, 2012). Two percent of the population greater than age five in Hernando County do not speak English, and seven percent of the population greater than age five in Florida do not speak English (Florida Charts, 2012). Overview of Healthy People 2020 â€Å"Healthy People 2020 provides science-based, 10-year national objectives for improving the health of all Americans (Healthy People 2020, 2012, p. 2). † The United States Department of Health and Human Services manages the site. Healthy People 2020 was developed to improve the nation’s health among all socioeconomic groups by monitoring the effects of prevention methods, educating people on healthy lifestyle decisions, promoting healthy environments, and establishing what research should be conducted. The goals of Healthy People 2020 include: Attain high-quality, longer lives free of preventable disease, disability, injury, and premature death. Achieve health equity, eliminate disparities, and improve the health of all groups. Create social and physical environments that promote good health for all. Promote quality of life, healthy development, and healthy behaviors across all life stages. (Healthy People 2020, 2012) The Leading Health Indicators come from the list of Healthy People 2020 objectives. The Leading Health Indicators of Healthy People 2020 are the issues of our nation’s health given the greatest priority in resolving (Healthy People 2020, 2012). The Leading Health Indicators were made to communicate high- priority health concerns and measures that can be taken to deal with them. According to Healthy People 2020, â€Å"The indicators will be used to assess the health of the Nation, facilitate collaboration across sectors, and motivate action at the national, State, and community levels to improve the health of the U.  S. population† (Healthy People 2020, 2012, p. 7). The Leading Health Indicators of Healthy People 2020 are the issues of our nation’s health given the greatest priority in resolving. They include the following: access to health services; clinical preventive services; environmental quality; injury and violence; maternal, infant, and child health; mental health; nutrition, physical activity, and obesity; oral health; reproductive and sexual health; social determinants; substance abuse; and tobacco (Healthy People 2020, 2012). Healthy People 2020 suggests that organizations who are working towards making the goals a reality, submit their LHI success stories to the Healthy People 2020 website so that Healthy People 2020 can use them to their benefit. These stories can give other people and organizations hope for success to attain their own goals. Furthermore, Healthy People 2020 proposes to MAP-IT in order to implement indicators in a community or population. The MAP-IT strategy can be used in any community to ultimately achieve Healthy People 2020 goals. One must mobilize supporters, assess the needs of the community, plan how to address these needs, implement the plan, and track the progress (Healthy People 2020, 2012). Analysis of Strengths and Needs The three leading health indicators of strength for Hernando County are maternal, infant, and child health; nutrition, physical activity, and obesity; and tobacco (Indicators for county: Hernando, 2012). For maternal, infant, and child health, Hernando County is in the first quartile (most favorable) for early prenatal care (care began first trimester), infant death rate, and neonatal death rate. Hernando County is also better than the state of Florida by having less premature births, births to teens fifteen to nineteen years old, and repeat births to mothers fifteen to nineteen years old and a lower post neonatal death rate. Regarding nutrition, physical activity, and obesity, Hernando County beats the Healthy People 2020 goals of thirty- three percent of the adult population engaging in no leisure-time physical activity with a percentage of twenty- seven percent and thirty- one percent of the adult population being obese (Indicators for county: Hernando, 2012). Concerning tobacco, Hernando County is in the first quartile (most favorable) for the percentage of adults who are current smokers (Florida Charts, 2012). The three leading health indicators of need in Hernando County are injury and violence, social determinants, and oral health (Indicators for county: Hernando, 2012). In regards to social determinants, Hernando County is in the fourth quartile (least favorable) for unemployment rate and is in the third quartile for median income (in dollars) (Florida Charts, 2012). Unemployment rate is a social determinant as it describes the conditions that the community is living in. For injury and violence, Hernando County is in the fourth quartile (least favorable) for unintentional injuries age-adjusted death rate and for suicide age-adjusted death rate. Additionally, Hernando County is in the third quartile for motor vehicle crash age-adjusted death rate and for domestic violence offenses (Florida Charts, 2012). There is a need to lower the injury and violence rate in the county because as compared to the state of Florida, Hernando is one of the most violent counties in Florida (Florida Charts, 2012). In concern of oral health, Hernando County is in the fourth quartile (least favorable) for adults who had a permanent tooth removed because of tooth decay or gum disease (Florida Charts, 2012). Oral health is designated as the priority health indicator. Oral health care is extremely important because people need to prevent infections of the mouth, cavities that cause pain, and cancer. But the primary concern is periodontal disease and how it can lead to more severe diseases. Such diseases caused by periodontal disease range from diabetes to heart disease. Previously stated, Hernando County is in the fourth quartile (least favorable) for adults who had a permanent tooth removed because of tooth decay or gum disease (Florida Charts, 2012). Community Health Models Determinants of Health â€Å"are broad categories of factors that influence health and illness† (Clark, 2008, p. 66). The Determinants-of-Health Model is a combination of other models such as the producing health, consuming health care model and the mandala model. The Determinants-of-Health Model can help the Community Health Nurse develop interventions that address a population based health concern because it has different categorical determinants with topics imbedded in each determinant. The Community Health Nurse could use this model to figure out which determinant is applicable for a certain health issue and use the model to narrow down topics for immediate intervention (Clark, 2008). Human biology, the health system, environment, and lifestyle are factors that can contribute to oral health and are part of the Determinants-of-Health-Model (Clark, 2008). Human biology, like one’s gender, can predispose a person to a certain quality of oral health. A study done in South Asia revealed that women were more likely to get dental caries than men due to genetic and hormonal factors (Lukacs, 2011). The utilization part of the health system also plays a role in oral health, which is shown in research done by the National Survey of Children’s Health 2007. This research showed that children with poor oral health care are more likely to utilize dental health services when they are young, but less likely to go to the dentist when they are older than those that with adequate oral health (Bell, Huebner, & Reed, 2007). Furthermore a study in Australia proves that the addition of fluoride to public water, which is a part of built environment and the environmental determinants, has a positive correlation with the quality of oral health (Armfield, 2010). The lifestyle choice of smoking significantly lessens oral health quality, as confirmed by a study performed in Croatia (Zajc, I. , Brajdic, D. , Biocic, J. , Bosan-Kilibarda, I. , Kopic, V. , Siber, S. , & Macan, D. , 2011). Population Diagnosis The population diagnosis for the priority health issue of oral health is that large adult population in Hernando County is at risk of oral health degradation related to lack of knowledge in proper dental care, evidenced by: (a) Hernando County is in the fourth quartile (least favorable) for adults who had a permanent tooth removed because of tooth decay or gum disease, (b) Hernando county is in the second quartile for adults who had their teeth cleaned in the past year, and (c) Hernando County is in the second quartile for adults who visited a dentist or a dental clinic in the past year (Florida Charts, 2012). The Interventions Wheel The Interventions Wheel â€Å"consists of 17 identified community health nursing interventions that cross over three levels of population-based practice: individual-focused, community-focused, and systems-focused practice† (Clark, 2008, p. 75). The Intervention Wheel is supposed to integrate the idea of determinants of health as all factors that affect health, not just disease or health-related behaviors. The authors of the model also indicate that the model â€Å"emphasizes health promotion and illness prevention† (Clark, 2008, p. 7). To apply the Interventions Wheel to the previously mentioned population diagnosis, the community-focused intervention of social marketing could be utilized. By using social marketing, the county could write a grant to fund a media campaign to spread the word about the importance of dental care (Clark, 2008). Levels of Prevention â€Å"Nursing interventions for identified health needs in the population are planned within the dimensions of health care. The dimensions of health care derive from the public health concepts of levels of prevention and include primary prevention, secondary prevention, and tertiary prevention† (Clark, 2008 p. 72) If you perform an intervention that is designed to prevent a health issue from happening, then it is primary prevention. For instance, â€Å"Immunization is a protective measure for communicable diseases† (Clark, 2008, p. 73). If the intervention is supposed to fix an existing issue, it is secondary prevention. This prevention includes â€Å"screening and early diagnosis as well as treatment for existing health problems† (Clark, 2008, p. 73). When a performed intervention is designed to prevent long-term consequences of a former problem, it is a tertiary prevention. An example of a tertiary prevention would be â€Å"exercise after a broken leg†¦ to prevent muscle atrophy and contractures† (Clark, 2008, p. 73). All three of the preventions mentioned apply to the priority health issue of oral health. For instance, a primary prevention would be going to the dentist routinely for cleaning to prevent cavities and disease of the mouth. A secondary prevention would be to use fluoride after the dentist identifies the degradation of tooth enamel. A tertiary prevention would be the use of a mouth guard after a hockey player lost their tooth and got it replaced by the dentist. Evidence Based Interventions For the primary level of prevention, a community-focused intervention could be utilized in support of the priority health issue of oral health. Health teaching could be done by working at local festivals and fairs promoting a teeth cleaning campaign. The campaign would be funded by local legislators in the county. The community health nurse could have a booth set-up at these local festivals and fairs teaching the community about the importance of oral health care. An article in the International Journal of Cardiology 2011 says that oral health promotion activities seem to produce improvements in periodontal health (Lam, O. , Zhang, W. , Samaranayake, L. , Li, L. , McGrath, C. , 2011). For the secondary level of prevention, a system-focused intervention could be used in support of the population diagnosis previously mentioned. By working with local health care providers to develop systems for screening, follow-up appointments, and treatment for cavities and gum disease, the rates of tooth loss in Hernando County could be lowered. The community health nurse would meet with other health care providers and help make these services available. An article in the American Journal for Public Health 2011 states that the dental practice is responsible for screening for disease in both oral and general health (Lamster & Eaves, 2011). For the tertiary level of prevention, an individual-focused intervention could be employed in support of oral health. By working with local health care providers, the community health nurse could establish follow-up care for patients with gum disease. Compliance of the patient could be monitored by seeing how many follow-up appointments the patient attends out of the suggested amount of appointments scheduled by the dentist. The dentist could monitor the treatment effects with subsequent visits by the patient. The patient could be educated on how to better his oral health care to prevent further negative impact and the spread of the disease. According to the Journal of Clinical Periodontology 2010, people that take better care of their teeth have a greater likelihood of showing up for follow-up care (Kakudate, N. , Morita, M. , Yamazaki, S. , Fukuhara, S. , Sugai, M. , Nagayama, M. , Kawanami, M. , & Chiba, I. , 2010). Conclusion Health policy plays a direct role on the health care received by patients. Health policy develops protocols on what procedures should be performed for certain situations. The health policy proposal is a secondary level prevention with a system-focused approach. The health policy proposal is that people who have been diagnosed with gum disease should seek follow-up care during the next two years to prevent tooth loss. â€Å"Dental care is necessary to prevent and treat orofacial disease, infection, and pain, as well as restore form and function of dentition† (Policy on medically necessary care, 2011, p. 20). The health policy proposal will decrease the number adults who had a permanent tooth removed because of tooth decay or gum disease in Hernando County.

Gay Marriage and Adoption Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

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Government funding for research benefit society.Do you agree Essay

Government funding for research benefit society.Do you agree - Essay Example Historically, R&D has been an indicator for innovation in any given country. For instance, the UK increased its spending on research and development between the years 1995 2011 to over  £27 billion (Muscio, Quaglione and Vallanti, 2013). However, there was a decline in research funding at the onset of economic crisis. Currently, UK government through RCUK (Research Councils UK) has initiated a new initiative known as Newton Fund to strengthen innovation and research (Hicks, 2012). By definition, research refers search for new concepts and knowledge while development is the process of bringing a new process or product from existing theory and knowledge (Chu, 2008). Therefore, this piece of work recommends that government funding for research benefits a society by ensuring that the country has a healthy society, productive economy and contributes to sustainability. The implication is that research and science are the heart of the nations economic growth, wider wellbeing, and prosperi ty. The conclusion as to why the government should fund research and development is always open to debate. Private sectors benefit from such initiatives, but they do not channel their benefits to societal well-being (Muscio, Quaglione, and Vallanti, 2013). However, it is the duty of the government to ensure that research and innovation is the core to economic growth. Central to this argument is that research and development has outstanding benefits to the society thus the government is obliged to channel funds to this sector. One underlying assumption for funding research is that countries use R&D to facilitate new commerce, and the aim is to improve the quality of life (Hicks, 2012). In fact, research should be part of a society’s infrastructure just like roads. As known to many, the government has the sole task of providing infrastructure, and it should take this as a responsibility. The